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- A Consumer's Guide to Fats
-
- Once upon a time, we didn't know anything about fat except
- that it made foods tastier. We cooked our food in lard or
- shortening. We spread butter on our breakfast toast and
plopped
- sour cream on our baked potatoes. Farmers bred their
animals to
- produce milk with high butterfat content and meat
"marbled" with
- fat because that was what most people wanted to eat.
- But ever since word got out that diets high in fat are
related
- to heart disease, things have become more complicated.
Experts tell
- us there are several different kinds of fat, some of them
worse for
- us than others. In addition to saturated, monounsaturated
and
- polyunsaturated fats, there are triglycerides, trans fatty
acids,
- and omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids.
- Most people have learned something about cholesterol, and
many
- of us have been to the doctor for a blood test to learn
our
- cholesterol "number." Now, however, it turns out
that there's more
- than one kind of cholesterol, too.
- Almost every day there are newspaper reports of new
studies
- or recommendations about what to eat or what not to eat:
Lard is
- bad, olive oil is good, margarine is better for you than
butter--
- then again, maybe it's not.
- Amid the welter of confusing terms and conflicting
details,
- consumers are often baffled about how to improve their
diets.
- FDA recently issued new regulations that will enable
consumers
- to see clearly on a food product's label how much and what
kind of
- fat the product contains. (See "A Little Lite
Reading" in the
- June 1993 FDA Consumer.) Understanding the terms used to
discuss
- fat is crucial if you want to make sure your diet is
within
- recommended guidelines (see accompanying article).
-
- Fats and Fatty Acids
- Fats are a group of chemical compounds that contain fatty
- acids. Energy is stored in the body mostly in the form of
fat. Fat
- is needed in the diet to supply essential fatty acids,
substances
- essential for growth but not produced by the body itself.
- There are three main types of fatty acids: saturated,
- monounsaturated and polyunsaturated. All fatty acids are
molecules
- composed mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms. A saturated
fatty
- acid has the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms
attached to
- every carbon atom. It is therefore said to be
"saturated" with
- hydrogen atoms.
- Some fatty acids are missing one pair of hydrogen atoms in
the
- middle of the molecule. This gap is called an "unsaturation"
and
- the fatty acid is said to be "monounsaturated"
because it has one
- gap. Fatty acids that are missing more than one pair of
hydrogen
- atoms are called "polyunsaturated."
- Saturated fats (which contain saturated fatty acids) are
- mostly found in foods of animal origin. Monounsaturated
and
- polyunsaturated fats (which contain monounsaturated and
- polyunsaturated fatty acids) are mostly found in foods of
plant
- origin and some seafoods. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are
of two
- kinds, omega-3 or omega-6. Scientists tell them apart by
where in
- the molecule the "unsaturations," or missing
hydrogen atoms, occur.
- Recently a new term has been added to the fat lexicon:
trans
- fatty acids. These are byproducts of partial
hydrogenation, a
- process in which some of the missing hydrogen atoms are
put back
- into polyunsaturated fats. "Partially hydrogenated
vegetable oils,"
- such as vegetable shortening and margarine, are solid at
room
- temperature.
-
- Cholesterol
- Cholesterol is sort of a "cousin" of fat. Both
fat and
- cholesterol belong to a larger family of chemical
compounds called
- lipids. All the cholesterol the body needs is made by the
liver. It
- is used to build cell membranes and brain and nerve
tissues.
- Cholesterol also helps the body produce steroid hormones
needed for
- body regulation, including processing food, and bile acids
needed
- for digestion.
- People don't need to consume dietary cholesterol because
the
- body can make enough cholesterol for its needs. But the
typical
- U.S. diet contains substantial amounts of cholesterol,
found in
- foods such as egg yolks, liver, meat, some shellfish, and
whole-
- milk dairy products. Only foods of animal origin contain
- cholesterol.
- Cholesterol is transported in the bloodstream in large
- molecules of fat and protein called lipoproteins.
Cholesterol
- carried in low-density lipoproteins is called LDL-cholesterol;
most
- cholesterol is of this type. Cholesterol carried in
high-density
- lipoproteins is called HDL-cholesterol. (See "Fat
Words.")
- A person's cholesterol "number" refers to the
total amount of
- cholesterol in the blood. Cholesterol is measured in
milligrams per
- deciliter (mg/dl) of blood. (A deciliter is a tenth of a
liter.)
- Doctors recommend that total blood cholesterol be kept
below 200
- mg/dl. The average level in adults in this country is 205
to 215
- mg/dl. Studies in the United States and other countries
have
- consistently shown that total cholesterol levels above 200
to 220
- mg/dl are linked with an increased risk of coronary heart
disease.
- (See "Lowering Cholesterol" in the March 1994
FDA Consumer.)
- LDL-cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol act differently in the
- body. A high level of LDL-cholesterol in the blood
increases the
- risk of fatty deposits forming in the arteries, which in
turn
- increases the risk of a heart attack. Thus, LDL-cholesterol
has
- been dubbed "bad" cholesterol.
- On the other hand, an elevated level of HDL-cholesterol
seems
- to have a protective effect against heart disease. For
this reason,
- HDL-cholesterol is often called "good"
cholesterol.
- In 1992, a panel of medical experts convened by the
National
- Institutes of Health (NIH) recommended that individuals
should have
- their level of HDL-cholesterol checked along with their
total
- cholesterol.
- According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
- (NHLBI), a component of NIH, a healthy person who is not
at high
- risk for heart disease and whose total cholesterol level
is in the
- normal range (around 200 mg/dl) should have an HDL-cholesterol
- level of more than 35 mg/dl. NHLBI also says that an LDL-
- cholesterol level of less than 130 mg/dl is
"desirable" to minimize
- the risk of heart disease.
- Some very recent studies have suggested that LDL-cholesterol
- is more likely to cause fatty deposits in the arteries if
it has
- been through a chemical change known as oxidation.
However, these
- findings are not accepted by all scientists.
- The NIH panel also advised that individuals with high
total
- cholesterol or other risk factors for coronary heart
disease should
- have their triglyceride levels checked along with their
HDL-
- cholesterol levels.
- Triglycerides and VLDL
- Triglyceride is another form in which fat is transported
- through the blood to the body tissues. Most of the body's
stored
- fat is in the form of triglycerides. Another
lipoprotein--very low-
- density lipoprotein, or VLDL--has the job of carrying
triglycerides
- in the blood. NHLBI considers a triglyceride level below
250 mg/dl
- to be normal.
- It is not clear whether high levels of triglycerides alone
- increase an individual's risk of heart disease. However,
they may
- be an important clue that someone is at risk of heart
disease for
- other reasons. Many people who have elevated triglycerides
also
- have high LDL-cholesterol or low HDL-cholesterol. People
with
- diabetes or kidney disease--two conditions that increase
the risk
- of heart disease--are also prone to high triglycerides.
- Dietary Fat and Cholesterol Levels
- Many people are confused about the effect of dietary fats
on
- cholesterol levels. At first glance, it seems reasonable
to think
- that eating less cholesterol would reduce a person's
cholesterol
- level. In fact, eating less cholesterol has less effect on
blood
- cholesterol levels than eating less saturated fat.
However, some
- studies have found that eating cholesterol increases the
risk of
- heart disease even if it doesn't increase blood
cholesterol levels.
- Another misconception is that people can improve their
- cholesterol numbers by eating "good"
cholesterol. In food, all
- cholesterol is the same. In the blood, whether cholesterol
is
- "good" or "bad" depends on the type of
lipoprotein that's carrying
- it.
- Polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats do not promote
the
- formation of artery-clogging fatty deposits the way
saturated fats
- do. Some studies show that eating foods that contain these
fats can
- reduce levels of LDL-cholesterol in the blood.
Polyunsaturated
- fats, such as safflower and corn oil, tend to lower both
HDL- and
- LDL-cholesterol. Edible oils rich in monounsaturated fats,
such as
- olive and canola oil, however, tend to lower LDL-cholesterol
- without affecting HDL levels.
-
- How Do We Know Fat's a Problem?
- In 1908, scientists first observed that rabbits fed a diet
of
- meat, whole milk, and eggs developed fatty deposits on the
walls of
- their arteries that constricted the flow of blood.
Narrowing of the
- arteries by these fatty deposits is called atherosclerosis.
It is a
- slowly progressing disease that can begin early in life
but not
- show symptoms for many years. In 1913, scientists
identified the
- substance responsible for the fatty deposits in the
rabbits'
- arteries as cholesterol.
- In 1916, Cornelius de Langen, a Dutch physician working in
- Java, Indonesia, noticed that native Indonesians had much
lower
- rates of heart disease than Dutch colonists living on the
island.
- He reported this finding to a medical journal, speculating
that the
- Indonesians' healthy hearts were linked with their low
levels of
- blood cholesterol.
- De Langen also noticed that both blood cholesterol levels
and
- rates of heart disease soared among Indonesians who
abandoned their
- native diet of mostly plant foods and ate a typical Dutch
diet
- containing a lot of meat and dairy products. This was the
first
- recorded suggestion that diet, cholesterol levels, and
heart
- disease were related in humans. But de Langen's
observations lay
- unnoticed in an obscure medical journal for more than 40
years.
- After World War II, medical researchers in Scandinavia
noticed
- that deaths from heart disease had declined dramatically
during the
- war, when food was rationed and meat, dairy products, and
eggs were
- scarce. At about the same time, other researchers found
that people
- who suffered heart attacks had higher levels of blood
cholesterol
- than people who did not have heart attacks.
- Since then, a large body of scientific evidence has been
- gathered linking high blood cholesterol and a diet high in
animal
- fats with an elevated risk of heart attack. In countries
where the
- average person's blood cholesterol level is less than 180
mg/dl,
- very few people develop atherosclerosis or have heart
attacks. In
- many countries where a lot of people have blood
cholesterol levels
- above 220 mg/dl, such as the United States, heart disease
is the
- leading cause of death.
- High rates of heart disease are commonly found in
countries
- where the diet is heavy with meat and dairy products
containing a
- lot of saturated fats. However, high-fat diets and high
rates of
- heart disease don't inevitably go hand-in-hand.
- Learning from Other Cultures
- People living on the Greek island of Crete have very low
rates
- of heart disease even though their diet is high in fat.
Most of
- their dietary fat comes from olive oil, a monounsaturated
fat that
- tends to lower levels of "bad" LDL-cholesterol
and maintain levels
- of "good" HDL-cholesterol.
- The Inuit, or Eskimo, people of Alaska and Greenland also
are
- relatively free of heart disease despite a high-fat, high-
- cholesterol diet. The staple food in their diet is fish
rich in
- omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
- Some research has shown that omega-3 fatty acids, found in
- fish such as salmon and mackerel as well as in soybean and
canola
- oil, lower both LDL-cholesterol and triglyceride levels in
the
- blood. Some nutrition experts recommend eating fish once
or twice a
- week to reduce heart disease risk. However, dietary
supplements
- containing concentrated fish oil are not recommended
because there
- is insufficient evidence that they are beneficial and
little is
- known about their long-term effects.
- Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids have also been found
in
- some studies to reduce both LDL- and HDL-cholesterol
levels in the
- blood. Linoleic acid, an essential nutrient (one that the
body
- cannot make for itself) and a component of corn, soybean
and
- safflower oil, is an omega-6 fatty acid.
- At one time, many nutrition experts recommended increasing
- consumption of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats
because of
- their cholesterol-lowering effects. Now, however, the
advice is
- simply to reduce dietary intake of all types of fat.
(Infants and
- young children, however, should not restrict dietary fat.)
- The available information on fats may be voluminous and is
- sometimes confusing. But sorting through the information
becomes
- easier once you know the terms and some of the history.
- The "bottom line" is actually quite simple,
according to John
- E. Vanderveen, Ph.D., director of the Office of Plant and
Dairy
- Foods and Beverages in FDA's Center for Food Safety and
Applied
- Nutrition. What we should be doing is removing as much of
the
- saturated fat from our diet as we can. We need to select
foods that
- are lower in total fat and especially in saturated
fat." In a
- nutshell, that means eating fewer foods of animal origin,
such as
- meat and whole-milk dairy products, and more plant foods
such as
- vegetables and grains. n
- Eleanor Mayfield is a writer in Silver Spring, Md.
- Fat Words
- Here are brief definitions of the key terms important to
an
- understanding of the role of fat in the diet.
- Cholesterol: A chemical compound manufactured in the body.
It is
- used to build cell membranes and brain and nerve tissues.
- Cholesterol also helps the body make steroid hormones and
bile
- acids.
- Dietary cholesterol: Cholesterol found in animal products
that are
- part of the human diet. Egg yolks, liver, meat, some
shellfish, and
- whole-milk dairy products are all sources of dietary
cholesterol.
- Fatty acid: A molecule composed mostly of carbon and
hydrogen
- atoms. Fatty acids are the building blocks of fats.
- Fat: A chemical compound containing one or more fatty
acids. Fat is
- one of the three main constituents of food (the others are
protein
- and carbohydrate). It is also the principal form in which
energy is
- stored in the body.
- Hydrogenated fat: A fat that has been chemically altered
by the
- addition of hydrogen atoms (see trans fatty acid).
Vegetable oil
- and margarine are hydrogenated fats.
- Lipid: A chemical compound characterized by the fact that
it is
- insoluble in water. Both fat and cholesterol are members
of the
- lipid family.
- Lipoprotein: A chemical compound made of fat and protein.
- Lipoproteins that have more fat than protein are called
low-density
- lipoproteins (LDLs). Lipoproteins that have more protein
than fat
- are called high-density lipoproteins (HDLs). Lipoproteins
are found
- in the blood, where their main function is to carry
cholesterol.
- Monounsaturated fatty acid: A fatty acid that is missing
one pair
- of hydrogen atoms in the middle of the molecule. The gap
is called
- an "unsaturation." Monounsaturated fatty acids
are found mostly in
- plant and sea foods.
- Monounsaturated fat: A fat made of monounsaturated fatty
acids.
- Olive oil and canola oil are monounsaturated fats.
Monounsaturated
- fats tend to lower levels of LDL-cholesterol in the blood.
- Polyunsaturated fatty acid: A fatty acid that is missing
more than
- one pair of hydrogen atoms. Polyunsaturated fatty acids
are mostly
- found in plant and sea foods.
- Polyunsaturated fat: A fat made of polyunsaturated fatty
acids.
- Safflower oil and corn oil are polyunsaturated fats.
- Polyunsaturated fats tend to lower levels of both HDL-cholesterol
- and LDL-cholesterol in the blood.
- Saturated fatty acid: A fatty acid that has the maximum
possible
- number of hydrogen atoms attached to every carbon atom. It
is said
- to be "saturated" with hydrogen atoms. Saturated
fatty acids are
- mostly found in animal products such as meat and whole
milk.
- Saturated fat: A fat made of saturated fatty acids. Butter
and lard
- are saturated fats. Saturated fats tend to raise levels of
LDL-
- cholesterol ("bad" cholesterol) in the blood.
Elevated levels of
- LDL-cholesterol are associated with heart disease.
- Trans fatty acid: A polyunsaturated fatty acid in which
some of the
- missing hydrogen atoms have been put back in a chemical
process
- called hydrogenation. Trans fatty acids are the building
blocks of
- hydrogenated fats. n
-
- --E.M.
- Government Advice
- Dietary guidelines endorsed by the U.S. Department of
- Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services
- advise consumers to:
- Reduce total dietary fat intake to 30 percent or less of
total
- calories.
- Reduce saturated fat intake to less than 10 percent of
- calories.
- Reduce cholesterol intake to less than 300 milligrams
daily.
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